Multi-Modal Research and Reports

Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. is a national leader in bicycle and pedestrian research, planning, design, and training. Our research produces results which are directly relevant to transportation professionals and has led the development of numerous analytical tools for planning and design. Our plans range from system wide analyses of pedestrian and bicycling accommodation and demands to street level corridor plans. Sprinkle Consulting staff are frequently called upon to design on-street bike facilities, sidewalks, and shared use paths. In addition, they are often asked to review the plans and concepts of others. We also provide training services for the Federal Highway Administration’s National Highway Institute and numerous states and communities across the country.

Sprinkle Consulting’s past and ongoing projects have led to numerous technical papers and reports. Descriptions and Acrobat (PDF) files of some of these papers and reports are provided below. They have been organized based upon subject matter:

Multi-Modal Level of Service

Multi-modal Level of Service Analysis for Urban Streets

Measuring the Quality of Bicycle Accommodations

Bicyclist Level of Service for the Roadway Segment

Intersection Level of Service: The Bicycle Through Movement

Bicycle Level of Service for Arterials

Measuring the Quality of Pedestrian Accommodations

Modeling the Roadside Walking Environment: A Pedestrian Level of Service

Level of Service Model for Signalized Intersections for Pedestrians

Pedestrian Level-of-Service Model for Urban Arterial Facilities with Sidewalks

Planning Tools

The Latent Demand Methodology

Measuring the Bicycle/Pedestrian Friendliness of a Roadway Network

Design Research

Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their Safety

Sidepath Safety Model - Bicycle Sidepath Design Factors Affecting Crash Rates

Research Tools

Video Simulation of Pedestrian Crossings at Signalized Intersections

Video Simulation of Roadway Bicycling

Additional Research Papers

Development of a Marketing Plan to Promote Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety to Hispanic Audiences

Evaluation of Pedestrian Safety Campaigns in Three Cities – Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC

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Multi-Modal Level of Service

Multimodal Level of Service Analysis for Urban Streets

(NCHRP Report 616 – Multimodal Level of Service Analysis for Urban Streets)

Sprinkle Consulting served on the consultant team for National Cooperative Research Program (NCHRP) Project 3-70 to develop a calibrated 

"a method for evaluating the multimodal level of service (MMLOS)  provided by different urban street designs and operations. This MMLOS method is designed for evaluating “complete street,” context-sensitive design alternatives, and smart growth from the perspective of all users of the street."

                                                                        Forward of NCHRP Report 616

Sprinkle Consulting led the development of the methodologies for assessing the bicycle and pedestrian modes within the multi modal context. This effort included the development of a video simulation lab for obtaining public input. The final methods include segment and intersection components as well as a roadway crossing difficulty component for pedestrians. 

Measuring the Quality of Bicycle Accommodations

(Originally Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a Bicyclist Level of Service in Transportation Research Record 1578)

The Bicycle Level of Service (LOS) Model developed by Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. started a revolution in the bicycle planning field. Until the development of this methodology, bicycle level of service was quantified using ad hoc or consensus based models. The Sprinkle Bicycle Level of Service model was developed based upon research which obtained feedback from real cyclists riding on actual roadways. The original model has undergone slight revisions (for example, driveway frequency is no longer included in the model). Version 2.0 of the Model has been adopted by numerous public agencies, including cities, counties, MPOs, and state departments of transportation, and has been applied to the evaluation of more than 200,000 miles of roadways throughout the United States.

(Transportation Research Record 1828)

As part of its continuing effort to provide effective planning tools for local municipalities, the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) contracted with Sprinkle Consulting to develop a Bicycle Level of Service model for bicyclists traveling through a signalized intersection. FDOT had already adopted the segment LOS for bicyclists and wanted a tool for evaluating the intersections. Again, Sprinkle Consulting used real cyclists on an instrumented urban and suburban roadway course to obtain the data needed to determine what operational and geometric characteristics impact how well cyclists feel intersections serve their needs. Upon extensive statewide review of the model, FDOT adopted it for use in Florida.

(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)

The development of the bicycle LOS model for arterials was perhaps the most ambitious of the LOS development projects. Since the model developed was to be for arterial roadways, we had to consider the effects of both segments and intersections in our data collection and modeling efforts. The field course for participant bicyclists was, by the nature of arterial roadways, along multi-lane, busy roadways. Neither we (nor our FDOT sponsors) were comfortable placing participant bicyclists into the full range of traffic volumes, speeds, percent trucks, and turning conflicts needed to create a comprehensive arterial model.  Therefore, Sprinkle Consulting decided to supplement the field data collection event with video simulation data. Once again, we were able to develop a field validated, statistically reliable model to represent the perceptions of bicyclists.

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Measuring the Quality of Pedestrian Accommodations

(Transportation Research Record 1773 – Awarded 2001 Outstanding Paper Award by TRB Committee A3B04)

What the Bicycle LOS Model did for bicycle planning, the Pedestrian LOS Model has done for pedestrian planning. Since its development in 2000, the Pedestrian LOS Model has been used to evaluate over 150,000 miles of roadway across the country. It is the only model developed based upon the input of real pedestrians walking in actual downtown and suburban conditions.

(Transportation Research Record 1939 - Awarded Best Paper Award by TRB Committee A3B04)

In 2003, FDOT once again came to Sprinkle Consulting to perform a field research (Walk for Science) event to develop an LOS model for pedestrians at signalized intersections. This time video simulation was used in conjunction with the field event to expand the range of intersection geometries and volumes we were able to show to the participant pedestrians. This model provided another tool to help the municipalities of Florida evaluate their transportation systems for how well they serve the needs of pedestrians.

(Transportation Research Record 1982)

During the scoping of the 2003 Walk for Science event, FDOT asked Sprinkle Consulting to expand the project to include a model which would consider both segments and intersections – an arterial LOS model. Once again, video simulation was used in conjunction with the field event to expand the range of roadways we were able to show to the participant pedestrians. This model, though limited in scope (urban arterials with sidewalks), provides additional insight into how pedestrians perceive the walking environment.

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Planning Tools

This paper discusses a variety of methods for predicting the bicycling demand within a community. It reviews the pros and cons of revealed demand (simply counting the number of current users), the spider-web method for connecting generators and attractors, and a more thorough evaluation technique called the Latent Demand Method.

Revealed demand (counting existing users) does not necessarily show where people want to ride. Often it represents where the bicycle accommodations are such that those who want/need to ride are comfortable doing so. Revealed demand will not capture areas where high demand is masked by poor infrastructure (no one is comfortable riding on the busy roads). Consequently, revealed demand can yield results skewed to where bicycling trips are already accommodated.

The typical “spider-web” method of identifying major generators (housing complexes, apartment blocks) and attractors (schools, malls, parks) and connecting the dots to identify high potential use routes also suffers from a major deficiency – most bicycling trips are not represented by these major generators and attractors. The trip to a friend’s house, to the convenience store for milk, to a local library, or a small park will be overlooked by this method. These short trips represent a significant portion – and likely the majority - of the bicycling (and walking) trips within a community.

The Latent Demand Method uses easy-to-obtain planning and Census data to determine along which roadways bicyclists (or pedestrians) would be most likely to ride (walk) if motor vehicular traffic were not an impediment. By using this GIS-ready data, available in most communities, the Latent Demand Method can capture trips between “all the rooftops” in a community rather than just the large generators and attractors. Used in dozens of cities, counties, MPOs and around the country, the Latent Demand Methodology provides an analytical, defensible method for determining the relative demand for bicycle facilities. While this paper discusses bicycle Latent Demand Methodology, a similar method is used for predicting pedestrian demand.

Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. was contracted by the Florida Department of Transportation, District Seven to develop a model which would predict the number of bicyclists and pedestrians that would use a pathway, bike lane, wide curb lane, etc., if it were built. Early on into this project, our research team realized one of the most important factors affecting the use of a facility (particularly for utilitarian purposes) is the accessibility of the new facility from the surrounding areas. More than just a measure of “links and nodes”, the network connectivity measure considers the miles of roadway in an analysis zone, the types or roadways (local, collector, or arterial) and the quality of biking or walking on those facilities. In addition, the network friendliness measure takes into account the average trip length around a study facility. This innovative planning tool provides valuable insight into the quality of the transportation network for bicyclist or pedestrians.

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Design Research

(Transportation Research Record 1878, full report is FHWA-HRT-04-103)

Tech Brief

The variety of users on the trails and roadways of the United States has increased dramatically over recent years.  Devices such as kick scooters, inline skates, hand cycles, and recumbent bicycles that were rarely seen on shared use paths as recently as ten years ago are now common.  Among the reasons for this shift are the development of new technologies and changing demographics.  For example, electric personal transporter devices (e.g., the SegwayTM) are new technologies that are appearing on paths and roadways around the country.  Additionally, coincident with the aging of the American population, the number of people using mobility assistive devices (such as manual wheelchairs, powered wheelchairs, and powered scooters) is increasing. 

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) recognized the need to accommodate emerging trail users in design criteria and sponsored this study to better understand their physical dimensions and operational characteristics.  This research represents a very important step in providing crucial information for the future development of AASHTO’s Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, the AASHTO Guide to the Development of Bicycle Facilities, the AASHTO Pedestrian Facilities Guide, as well as other new design standards.

(Transportation Research Record 1982)

Full Report

 This sidepath selection methodology addresses two issues related to bicycle travel: providing opportunities to those people who may wish to use a bicycle for transportation, and the safety of all those riding bicycles. Simply put, while it is recognized that there is an overwhelming amount of research showing that on-street facilities are safer for bicyclists than sidepaths, there are some people who will not choose to ride bicycles for transportation if only on-street facilities are provided. A subset of this group includes those who, while they must ride on whatever facility is provided (to get to jobs, schools, stores), are not comfortable riding in the roadway with motor vehicles. Providing sidepaths may increase the population of those who might choose to use bicycles and the mobility of those who must use bicycles. In addition to accommodating cyclists, the selection procedure must address bicycling safety concerns. This selection methodology addresses both the mobility and safety aspects of providing sidepaths.

The Influence of Lane Widths on Safety and Capacity

The competition for space within a roadway right-of-way is fierce. It is no longer just sidewalks and bike lanes battling “motor vehicle lanes” for the space. Drainage and utilities are also vying for their share of the right-of-way and money for additional right-of-way is difficult to acquire. Also, adjacent property owners are not usually “friendly sellers” of land for roadway projects. Often times, something gets squeezed out – usually, it is the bicycle and/or the pedestrian facilities.

New research has revealed that narrowing the motor vehicle lanes, even down to 10 feet, has no significant impact on capacity or safety. This means we can redistribute the existing pavement/right-of-way to better accommodate all users.

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Research Tools

(Transportation Research Record 1920)

This paper describes the filming techniques used to develop the video simulations used to supplement the walking course that was central to the development of the intersection LOS model for pedestrians. When comparing the scores obtained from walking the course and those obtained from video we found a statistically significant difference in the way they were scored. Consequently, prior to using the data in the development of the model, we first created a function to calibrate the video scores to real life. With the development and calibration of this video simulation technique, we can now perform more research into pedestrians’ perceptions without having to put research participants onto busy roadways and across high volume intersections.

(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)

 As part of the arterial LOS model for bicyclists model development effort described above, we needed to expose bicyclists to a very large range of roadway environments. Putting volunteer participants into some of the more extreme roadway conditions was not a viable option. Video simulation techniques had been used in previous bicycle research projects with varying degrees of success. Sprinkle Consulting reviewed these previously used methods and tested numerous new techniques for creating video simulations. The final video platform was a Viewpoint (a special tandem bicycle where the captain sits in back on an upright bike and the stoker sits in the front on a recumbent) bicycle with a Glidecam® placed on a vertical mast added to the bike’s forward boom. 

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Additional Research Papers

(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)

According to a 2004 report by the Center for Applied Research and The Media Network, an average of 545 Hispanic pedestrians and 79 Hispanic bicyclists are killed in crashes with motor vehicles every year.  These numbers are likely to increase as the Hispanic population in the U.S. continues to increase.  There is a clear need to include Hispanics as part of the target audience in any pedestrian/bicycle safety education program.  With that need in mind, the Federal Highway Administration sponsored this project, “Marketing Plan and Outreach Materials that Promote Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety to Different Hispanic Populations in the United States.”

Sprinkle Consulting, working as a subconsultant with Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), reviewed existing safety materials and programs that target Hispanic populations to develop a national marketing plan for addressing this increasing pedestrian and bicycle crash problem. Specifically the marketing plan addressed the following questions:

• In what pedestrian and bicycle safety-related areas is communication with Hispanic audiences most needed?

• What types of messages are most likely to have the most impact?

• What are the best “media” for getting the messages across?

• Which Hispanic groups should be targeted and why?

• Which age groups of Hispanics should be targeted and why?

• Should different cultural groups be targeted and why?

• Should materials be presented just in Spanish, or in English and Portuguese as well?

(2006 Lifesavers Meeting, Austin, TX)

In 1991, The National Bicycling and Walking Study set goals of (1) doubling the levels of walking and bicycling in the U.S. and (2) decreasing the number of crash-related injuries and fatalities by 10 percent (2).  Although these goals may seem contradictory at first, a comprehensive pedestrian safety program may enable both goals to be achieved.  Such a program may include components that address the three E’s of engineering, education, and enforcement, for example:  (1) providing pedestrian facilities such as sidewalks and pedestrian signals, (2) educating pedestrians and motorists about safety, and (3) enforcing pedestrian-related laws.

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has created a Pedestrian Safety Campaign Planner.  It is available online at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedcampaign/index.htm and includes television and radio public service announcements (PSA’s), print posters, and other materials.  Some of the materials are available in both English and Spanish.  States and communities can use these materials as is, or can customize them to suit their needs.

FHWA sponsored this study to evaluate the Pedestrian Safety Campaign Planner materials in Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC.  This study was carried out to answer these questions:

1. Is the public aware of the campaign and its messages?

2. Has the campaign increased knowledge of pedestrian safety?

3. Are pedestrians and motorists behaving more safely? (i.e., does knowledge translate into action?)

Sprinkle Consulting, working as a subconsultant with SAIC, developed the data collection techniques and performed the evaluations for FHWA using interactive data collection methods and observational surveys. The findings of these evaluations provide valuable insight for communities planning pedestrian safety campaigns.

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Conserve By Bike

For additional information on any of the above projects, please contact
Theo Petritsch, P.E., PTOE, Director of Transportation Programs, by email or phone (813.949.7449).