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Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. is a national leader in bicycle and
pedestrian research, planning, design, and training. Our research
produces results which are directly relevant to transportation
professionals and has led the development of numerous analytical
tools for planning and design. Our plans range from system wide
analyses of pedestrian and bicycling accommodation and demands to
street level corridor plans. Sprinkle Consulting staff are
frequently called upon to design on-street bike facilities,
sidewalks, and shared use paths. In addition, they are often asked
to review the plans and concepts of others. We also provide training
services for the Federal Highway Administration’s National Highway
Institute and numerous states and communities across the country.
Sprinkle Consulting’s past and ongoing projects have led to numerous
technical papers and reports. Descriptions and Acrobat (PDF) files
of some of these papers and reports are provided below. They have
been organized based upon subject matter:
Bicyclist Level of Service
for the Roadway Segment
Intersection Level
of Service: The Bicycle Through Movement
Bicycle Level of
Service for Arterials
Modeling
the Roadside Walking Environment: A Pedestrian Level of Service
Level of
Service Model for Signalized Intersections for Pedestrians
Pedestrian
Level-of-Service Model for Urban Arterial Facilities with Sidewalks
The Latent Demand Methodology
Measuring the Bicycle/Pedestrian Friendliness
of a Roadway Network
Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their Safety
Sidepath
Safety Model - Bicycle Sidepath Design Factors Affecting Crash Rates
Video
Simulation of Pedestrian Crossings at Signalized Intersections
Video
Simulation of Roadway Bicycling
Development of a Marketing Plan to Promote Pedestrian and Bicyclist
Safety to Hispanic Audiences
Evaluation of Pedestrian Safety Campaigns in Three Cities –
Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC
CONSERVE BY BIKE
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(Originally Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a Bicyclist
Level of Service in Transportation Research Record 1578)
The Bicycle Level of Service (LOS) Model developed by Sprinkle
Consulting, Inc. started a revolution in the bicycle planning field.
Until the development of this methodology, bicycle level of service
was quantified using ad hoc or consensus based models. The Sprinkle
Bicycle Level of Service model was developed based upon research
which obtained feedback from real cyclists riding on actual
roadways. The original model has undergone slight revisions (for
example, driveway frequency is no longer included in the model).
Version 2.0 of the Model has been adopted by numerous public
agencies, including cities, counties, MPOs, and state departments of
transportation, and has been applied to the evaluation of more than
200,000 miles of roadways throughout the United States.
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(Transportation Research Record 1828)
As
part of its continuing effort to provide effective planning tools
for local municipalities, the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT)
contracted with Sprinkle Consulting to develop a Bicycle Level of
Service model for bicyclists traveling through a signalized
intersection. FDOT had already adopted the segment LOS for
bicyclists and wanted a tool for evaluating the intersections.
Again, Sprinkle Consulting used real cyclists on an instrumented
urban and suburban roadway course to obtain the data needed to
determine what operational and geometric characteristics impact how
well cyclists feel intersections serve their needs. Upon extensive
statewide review of the model, FDOT adopted it for use in Florida.
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(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation
Research Board, 2007)
The development of the bicycle LOS model for arterials was perhaps
the most ambitious of the LOS development projects. Since the model
developed was to be for arterial roadways, we had to consider the
effects of both segments and intersections in our data collection
and modeling efforts. The field course for participant bicyclists
was, by the nature of arterial roadways, along multi-lane, busy
roadways. Neither we (nor our FDOT sponsors) were comfortable
placing participant bicyclists into the full range of traffic
volumes, speeds, percent trucks, and turning conflicts needed to
create a comprehensive arterial model. Therefore, Sprinkle
Consulting decided to supplement the field data collection event
with video simulation data. Once again, we were able to develop a
field validated, statistically reliable model to represent the
perceptions of bicyclists.
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(Transportation Research Record 1773 – Awarded 2001 Outstanding
Paper Award by TRB Committee A3B04)
What the Bicycle LOS Model did for bicycle planning, the Pedestrian
LOS Model has done for pedestrian planning. Since its development in
2000, the Pedestrian LOS Model has been used to evaluate over
150,000 miles of roadway across the country. It is the only model
developed based upon the input of real pedestrians walking in actual
downtown and suburban conditions.
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(Transportation Research Record 1939 - Awarded Best Paper Award
by TRB Committee A3B04)
In
2003, FDOT once again came to Sprinkle Consulting to perform a field
research (Walk for Science) event to develop an LOS model for
pedestrians at signalized intersections. This time video simulation
was used in conjunction with the field event to expand the range of
intersection geometries and volumes we were able to show to the
participant pedestrians. This model provided another tool to help
the municipalities of Florida evaluate their transportation systems
for how well they serve the needs of pedestrians. |
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(Transportation Research Record 1982)
During the scoping of the 2003 Walk for Science event, FDOT asked
Sprinkle Consulting to expand the project to include a model which
would consider both segments and intersections – an arterial LOS
model. Once again, video simulation was used in conjunction with the
field event to expand the range of roadways we were able to show to
the participant pedestrians. This model, though limited in scope
(urban arterials with sidewalks), provides additional insight into
how pedestrians perceive the walking environment.
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This paper discusses a variety of methods for predicting the
bicycling demand within a community. It reviews the pros and cons of
revealed demand (simply counting the number of current users), the
spider-web method for connecting generators and attractors, and a
more thorough evaluation technique called the Latent Demand Method.
Revealed demand (counting existing users) does not necessarily show
where people want to ride. Often it represents where the bicycle
accommodations are such that those who want/need to ride are
comfortable doing so. Revealed demand will not capture areas where
high demand is masked by poor infrastructure (no one is comfortable
riding on the busy roads). Consequently, revealed demand can yield
results skewed to where bicycling trips are already accommodated.
The typical “spider-web” method of identifying major generators
(housing complexes, apartment blocks) and attractors (schools,
malls, parks) and connecting the dots to identify high potential use
routes also suffers from a major deficiency – most bicycling trips
are not represented by these major generators and attractors. The
trip to a friend’s house, to the convenience store for milk, to a
local library, or a small park will be overlooked by this method.
These short trips represent a significant portion – and likely the
majority - of the bicycling (and walking) trips within a community.
The Latent Demand Method uses easy-to-obtain planning and Census
data to determine along which roadways bicyclists (or pedestrians)
would be most likely to ride (walk) if motor vehicular traffic were
not an impediment. By using this GIS-ready data, available in most
communities, the Latent Demand Method can capture trips between “all
the rooftops” in a community rather than just the large generators
and attractors. Used in dozens of cities, counties, MPOs and around
the country, the Latent Demand Methodology provides an analytical,
defensible method for determining the relative demand for bicycle
facilities. While this paper discusses bicycle Latent Demand
Methodology, a similar method is used for predicting pedestrian
demand.
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Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. was contracted by the Florida Department
of Transportation, District Seven to develop a model which would
predict the number of bicyclists and pedestrians that would use a
pathway, bike lane, wide curb lane, etc., if it were built. Early on
into this project, our research team realized one of the most
important factors affecting the use of a facility (particularly for
utilitarian purposes) is the accessibility of the new facility from
the surrounding areas. More than just a measure of “links and
nodes”, the network connectivity measure considers the miles of
roadway in an analysis zone, the types or roadways (local,
collector, or arterial) and the quality of biking or walking on
those facilities. In addition, the network friendliness measure
takes into account the average trip length around a study facility.
This innovative planning tool provides valuable insight into the
quality of the transportation network for bicyclist or pedestrians.
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(Transportation Research Record 1878, full report is
FHWA-HRT-04-103)
Tech Brief
The variety of users on the trails and roadways of the United States
has increased dramatically over recent years. Devices such as kick
scooters, inline skates, hand cycles, and recumbent bicycles that
were rarely seen on shared use paths as recently as ten years ago
are now common. Among the reasons for this shift are the
development of new technologies and changing demographics. For
example, electric personal transporter devices (e.g., the SegwayTM)
are new technologies that are appearing on paths and roadways around
the country. Additionally, coincident with the aging of the
American population, the number of people using mobility assistive
devices (such as manual wheelchairs, powered wheelchairs, and
powered scooters) is increasing.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) recognized the need to
accommodate emerging trail users in design criteria and sponsored
this study to better understand their physical dimensions and
operational characteristics. This research represents a very
important step in providing crucial information for the future
development of AASHTO’s Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, the AASHTO Guide to the Development of Bicycle Facilities,
the AASHTO Pedestrian Facilities Guide, as well as other new design
standards.
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(Transportation Research Record 1982)
Full Report
This sidepath selection methodology addresses two issues related to
bicycle travel: providing opportunities to those people who may wish
to use a bicycle for transportation, and the safety of all those
riding bicycles. Simply put, while it is recognized that there is an
overwhelming amount of research showing that on-street facilities
are safer for bicyclists than sidepaths, there are some people who
will not choose to ride bicycles for transportation if only
on-street facilities are provided. A subset of this group includes
those who, while they must ride on whatever facility is provided (to
get to jobs, schools, stores), are not comfortable riding in the
roadway with motor vehicles. Providing sidepaths may increase the
population of those who might choose to use bicycles and the
mobility of those who must use bicycles. In addition to
accommodating cyclists, the selection procedure must address
bicycling safety concerns. This selection methodology addresses both
the mobility and safety aspects of providing sidepaths.
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(Transportation Research Record 1920)
This paper describes the filming techniques used to develop the
video simulations used to supplement the walking course that was
central to the development of the intersection LOS model for
pedestrians. When comparing the scores obtained from walking the
course and those obtained from video we found a statistically
significant difference in the way they were scored. Consequently,
prior to using the data in the development of the model, we first
created a function to calibrate the video scores to real life. With
the development and calibration of this video simulation technique,
we can now perform more research into pedestrians’ perceptions
without having to put research participants onto busy roadways and
across high volume intersections.
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(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation
Research Board, 2007)
As part of the arterial LOS model for bicyclists model development
effort described above, we needed to expose bicyclists to a very
large range of roadway environments. Putting volunteer participants
into some of the more extreme roadway conditions was not a viable
option. Video simulation techniques had been used in previous
bicycle research projects with varying degrees of success. Sprinkle
Consulting reviewed these previously used methods and tested
numerous new techniques for creating video simulations. The final
video platform was a Viewpoint (a special tandem bicycle where the
captain sits in back on an upright bike and the stoker sits in the
front on a recumbent) bicycle with a GlidecamŽ placed on a vertical
mast added to the bike’s forward boom.
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(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation
Research Board, 2007)
According to a 2004 report by the Center for Applied Research and
The Media Network, an average of 545 Hispanic pedestrians and 79
Hispanic bicyclists are killed in crashes with motor vehicles every
year. These numbers are likely to increase as the Hispanic
population in the U.S. continues to increase. There is a clear need
to include Hispanics as part of the target audience in any
pedestrian/bicycle safety education program. With that need in
mind, the Federal Highway Administration sponsored this project,
“Marketing Plan and Outreach Materials that Promote Pedestrian and
Bicyclist Safety to Different Hispanic Populations in the United
States.”
Sprinkle Consulting, working as a subconsultant with Science
Applications International Corporation (SAIC), reviewed existing
safety materials and programs that target Hispanic populations to
develop a national marketing plan for addressing this increasing
pedestrian and bicycle crash problem. Specifically the marketing
plan addressed the following questions:
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In what pedestrian and bicycle safety-related areas is
communication with Hispanic audiences most needed?
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What types of messages are most likely to have the most impact?
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What are the best “media” for getting the messages across?
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Which Hispanic groups should be targeted and why?
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Which age groups of Hispanics should be targeted and why?
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Should different cultural groups be targeted and why?
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Should materials be presented just in Spanish, or in English and
Portuguese as well?
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(2006 Lifesavers Meeting, Austin, TX)
In
1991, The National Bicycling and Walking Study set goals of (1)
doubling the levels of walking and bicycling in the U.S. and (2)
decreasing the number of crash-related injuries and fatalities by 10
percent (2). Although these goals may seem contradictory at first,
a comprehensive pedestrian safety program may enable both goals to
be achieved. Such a program may include components that address the
three E’s of engineering, education, and enforcement, for example:
(1) providing pedestrian facilities such as sidewalks and pedestrian
signals, (2) educating pedestrians and motorists about safety, and
(3) enforcing pedestrian-related laws.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has created a Pedestrian
Safety Campaign Planner. It is available online at
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedcampaign/index.htm
and includes
television and radio public service announcements (PSA’s), print
posters, and other materials. Some of the materials are available
in both English and Spanish. States and communities can use these
materials as is, or can customize them to suit their needs.
FHWA sponsored this study to evaluate the Pedestrian Safety Campaign
Planner materials in Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington,
DC. This study was carried out to answer these questions:
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Is the public aware of the campaign and its messages?
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Has the campaign increased knowledge of pedestrian safety?
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Are pedestrians and motorists behaving more safely? (i.e., does
knowledge translate into action?)
Sprinkle Consulting, working as a subconsultant with SAIC, developed
the data collection techniques and performed the evaluations for
FHWA using interactive data collection methods and observational
surveys. The findings of these evaluations provide valuable insight
for communities planning pedestrian safety campaigns.
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For additional information on any of the above projects, please
contact
Theo Petritsch, P.E., PTOE, Director of Transportation Programs,
by email or phone (813.949.7449).
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