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Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. is a national
leader in bicycle and pedestrian research, planning, design, and
training. Our research produces results which are directly relevant
to transportation professionals and has led the development of
numerous analytical tools for planning and design. Our plans range
from system wide analyses of pedestrian and bicycling accommodation
and demands to street level corridor plans. Sprinkle Consulting
staff are frequently called upon to design on-street bike
facilities, sidewalks, and shared use paths. In addition, they are
often asked to review the plans and concepts of others. We also
provide training services for the Federal Highway Administration’s
National Highway Institute and numerous states and communities
across the country.
Sprinkle Consulting’s past and ongoing
projects have led to numerous technical papers and reports.
Descriptions and Acrobat (PDF) files of some of these papers and
reports are provided below. They have been organized based upon
subject matter:
Measuring the Quality of Bicycle Accommodations
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Bicyclist Level of Service for the Roadway Segment
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Intersection Level of Service: The Bicycle Through Movement
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Bicycle Level of Service for Arterials
Measuring the Quality of Pedestrian Accommodations
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Modeling the Roadside Walking Environment: A Pedestrian Level of
Service
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Level of Service Model for Signalized Intersections for
Pedestrians
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Pedestrian Level-of-Service Model for Urban Arterial Facilities
with Sidewalks
Assessing Bicycle and Pedestrian Demand
Design Research
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Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their
Safety
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Sidepath Safety Model - Bicycle Sidepath Design Factors
Affecting Crash Rates
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The Influence of Lane Widths on Safety and Capacity
Research Tools
Additional Research Papers
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Development of a Marketing Plan to Promote Pedestrian and
Bicyclist Safety to Hispanic Audiences
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Evaluation of Pedestrian Safety Campaigns in Three Cities –
Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC
Bicyclist Level of Service for the Roadway Segment
(Originally Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a Bicyclist Level of
Service in Transportation Research Record 1578)
The Bicycle Level of Service (LOS) Model
developed by Sprinkle Consulting, Inc. started a revolution in the
bicycle planning field. Until the development of this methodology,
bicycle level of service was quantified using ad hoc or consensus
based models. The Sprinkle Bicycle Level of Service model was
developed based upon research which obtained feedback from real
cyclists riding on actual roadways. The original model has undergone
slight revisions (for example, driveway frequency is no longer
included in the model). Version 2.0 of the Model has been adopted by
numerous public agencies, including cities, counties, MPOs, and
state departments of transportation, and has been applied to the
evaluation of more than 200,000 miles of roadways throughout the
United States.
Intersection Level of Service: The Bicycle Through Movement
(Transportation Research Record 1828)
As part of its continuing effort to
provide effective planning tools for local municipalities, the
Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) contracted with Sprinkle
Consulting to develop a Bicycle Level of Service model for
bicyclists traveling through a signalized intersection. FDOT had
already adopted the segment LOS for bicyclists and wanted a tool for
evaluating the intersections. Again, Sprinkle Consulting used real
cyclists on an instrumented urban and suburban roadway course to
obtain the data needed to determine what operational and geometric
characteristics impact how well cyclists feel intersections serve
their needs. Upon extensive statewide review of the model, FDOT
adopted it for use in Florida.
Bicycle Level of Service for Arterials
(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of
Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)
The development of the bicycle LOS model
for arterials was perhaps the most ambitious of the LOS development
projects. Since the model developed was to be for arterial roadways,
we had to consider the effects of both segments and intersections in
our data collection and modeling efforts. The field course for
participant bicyclists was, by the nature of arterial roadways,
along multi-lane, busy roadways. Neither we (nor our FDOT sponsors)
were comfortable placing participant bicyclists into the full range
of traffic volumes, speeds, percent trucks, and turning conflicts
needed to create a comprehensive arterial model. Therefore,
Sprinkle Consulting decided to supplement the field data collection
event with video simulation data. Once again, we were able to
develop a field validated, statistically reliable model to represent
the perceptions of bicyclists.
Modeling the Roadside Walking Environment: A Pedestrian Level of
Service
(Transportation Research Record 1773 –
Awarded 2001 Outstanding Paper Award by TRB Committee A3B04)
What the Bicycle LOS Model did for bicycle
planning, the Pedestrian LOS Model has done for pedestrian planning.
Since its development in 2000, the Pedestrian LOS Model has been
used to evaluate over 150,000 miles of roadway across the country.
It is the only model developed based upon the input of real
pedestrians walking in actual downtown and suburban conditions.
Level of Service Model for Signalized Intersections for Pedestrians
(Transportation Research Record 1939 -
Awarded Best Paper Award by TRB Committee A3B04)
In 2003, FDOT once again came to Sprinkle
Consulting to perform a field research (Walk for Science) event to
develop an LOS model for pedestrians at signalized intersections.
This time video simulation was used in conjunction with the field
event to expand the range of intersection geometries and volumes we
were able to show to the participant pedestrians. This model
provided another tool to help the municipalities of Florida evaluate
their transportation systems for how well they serve the needs of
pedestrians.
Pedestrian Level-of-Service Model for Urban Arterial Facilities with
Sidewalks
(Transportation Research Record 1982)
During the scoping of the 2003 Walk for
Science event, FDOT asked Sprinkle Consulting to expand the project
to include a model which would consider both segments and
intersections – an arterial LOS model. Once again, video simulation
was used in conjunction with the field event to expand the range of
roadways we were able to show to the participant pedestrians. This
model, though limited in scope (urban arterials with sidewalks),
provides additional insight into how pedestrians perceive the
walking environment.
Methods for Assessing Bicycle (and Pedestrian) Demand
This paper discusses a variety of methods
for predicting the bicycling demand within a community. It reviews
the pros and cons of revealed demand (simply counting the number of
current users), the spider-web method for connecting generators and
attractors, and a more thorough evaluation technique called the
Latent Demand Method.
Revealed demand (counting existing users)
does not necessarily show where people want to ride. Often it
represents where the bicycle accommodations are such that those who
want/need to ride are comfortable doing so. Revealed demand will not
capture areas where high demand is masked by poor infrastructure (no
one is comfortable riding on the busy roads). Consequently, revealed
demand can yield results skewed to where bicycling trips are already
accommodated.
The typical “spider-web” method of
identifying major generators (housing complexes, apartment blocks)
and attractors (schools, malls, parks) and connecting the dots to
identify high potential use routes also suffers from a major
deficiency – most bicycling trips are not represented by these major
generators and attractors. The trip to a friend’s house, to the
convenience store for milk, to a local library, or a small park will
be overlooked by this method. These short trips represent a
significant portion – and likely the majority - of the bicycling
(and walking) trips within a community.
The Latent Demand Method uses
easy-to-obtain planning and Census data to determine along which
roadways bicyclists (or pedestrians) would be most likely to ride
(walk) if motor vehicular traffic were not an impediment. By using
this GIS-ready data, available in most communities, the Latent
Demand Method can capture trips between “all the rooftops” in a
community rather than just the large generators and attractors. Used
in dozens of cities, counties, MPOs and around the country, the
Latent Demand Methodology provides an analytical, defensible method
for determining the relative demand for bicycle facilities. While
this paper discusses bicycle Latent Demand Methodology, a similar
method is used for predicting pedestrian demand.
(Transportation Research Record 1878,
full report is FHWA-HRT-04-103)
Tech Brief
The variety of users on the trails and
roadways of the United States has increased dramatically over recent
years. Devices such as kick scooters, inline skates, hand cycles,
and recumbent bicycles that were rarely seen on shared use paths as
recently as ten years ago are now common. Among the reasons for
this shift are the development of new technologies and changing
demographics. For example, electric personal transporter devices
(e.g., the SegwayTM) are new technologies that are appearing on
paths and roadways around the country. Additionally, coincident
with the aging of the American population, the number of people
using mobility assistive devices (such as manual wheelchairs,
powered wheelchairs, and powered scooters) is increasing.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
recognized the need to accommodate emerging trail users in design
criteria and sponsored this study to better understand their
physical dimensions and operational characteristics. This research
represents a very important step in providing crucial information
for the future development of AASHTO’s Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, the AASHTO Guide to the Development of Bicycle
Facilities, the AASHTO Pedestrian Facilities Guide, as well as other
new design standards.
Sidepath Safety Model - Bicycle Sidepath Design Factors Affecting
Crash Rates
(Transportation Research Record 1982)
Full Report
This sidepath selection methodology
addresses two issues related to bicycle travel: providing
opportunities to those people who may wish to use a bicycle for
transportation, and the safety of all those riding bicycles. Simply
put, while it is recognized that there is an overwhelming amount of
research showing that on-street facilities are safer for bicyclists
than sidepaths, there are some people who will not choose to ride
bicycles for transportation if only on-street facilities are
provided. A subset of this group includes those who, while they must
ride on whatever facility is provided (to get to jobs, schools,
stores), are not comfortable riding in the roadway with motor
vehicles. Providing sidepaths may increase the population of those
who might choose to use bicycles and the mobility of those who must
use bicycles. In addition to accommodating cyclists, the selection
procedure must address bicycling safety concerns. This selection
methodology addresses both the mobility and safety aspects of
providing sidepaths.
The Influence of Lane Widths on Safety and Capacity
The competition for space within a roadway
right-of-way is fierce. It is no longer just sidewalks and bike
lanes battling “motor vehicle lanes” for the space. Drainage and
utilities are also vying for their share of the right-of-way and
money for additional right-of-way is difficult to acquire. Also,
adjacent property owners are not usually “friendly sellers” of land
for roadway projects. Often times, something gets squeezed out –
usually, it is the bicycle and/or the pedestrian facilities.
New research has revealed that narrowing
the motor vehicle lanes, even down to 10 feet, has no significant
impact on capacity or safety. This means we can redistribute the
existing pavement/right-of-way to better accommodate all users.
Video Simulation of Pedestrian Crossings at Signalized Intersections
(Transportation Research Record 1920)
This paper describes the filming
techniques used to develop the video simulations used to supplement
the walking course that was central to the development of the
intersection LOS model for pedestrians. When comparing the scores
obtained from walking the course and those obtained from video we
found a statistically significant difference in the way they were
scored. Consequently, prior to using the data in the development of
the model, we first created a function to calibrate the video scores
to real life. With the development and calibration of this video
simulation technique, we can now perform more research into
pedestrians’ perceptions without having to put research participants
onto busy roadways and across high volume intersections
Video Simulation of Roadway Bicycling
(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of
Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)
As part of the arterial LOS model for
bicyclists model development effort described above, we needed to
expose bicyclists to a very large range of roadway environments.
Putting volunteer participants into some of the more extreme roadway
conditions was not a viable option. Video simulation techniques had
been used in previous bicycle research projects with varying degrees
of success. Sprinkle Consulting reviewed these previously used
methods and tested numerous new techniques for creating video
simulations. The final video platform was a Viewpoint (a special
tandem bicycle where the captain sits in back on an upright bike and
the stoker sits in the front on a recumbent) bicycle with a GlidecamŽ
placed on a vertical mast added to the bike’s forward boom.
Development of a Marketing Plan to Promote Pedestrian and Bicyclist
Safety to Hispanic Audiences
(86th Annual Meeting Compendium of
Papers, Transportation Research Board, 2007)
According to a 2004 report by the Center
for Applied Research and The Media Network, an average of 545
Hispanic pedestrians and 79 Hispanic bicyclists are killed in
crashes with motor vehicles every year. These numbers are likely to
increase as the Hispanic population in the U.S. continues to
increase. There is a clear need to include Hispanics as part of the
target audience in any pedestrian/bicycle safety education program.
With that need in mind, the Federal Highway Administration sponsored
this project, “Marketing Plan and Outreach Materials that Promote
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety to Different Hispanic Populations in
the United States.”
Sprinkle Consulting, working as a
subconsultant with Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC),
reviewed existing safety materials and programs that target Hispanic
populations to develop a national marketing plan for addressing this
increasing pedestrian and bicycle crash problem. Specifically the
marketing plan addressed the following questions:
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In what pedestrian and bicycle
safety-related areas is communication with Hispanic audiences
most needed?
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What types of messages are most likely
to have the most impact?
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What are the best “media” for getting
the messages across?
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Which Hispanic groups should be
targeted and why?
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Which age groups of Hispanics should
be targeted and why?
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Should different cultural groups be
targeted and why?
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Should materials be presented just in
Spanish, or in English and Portuguese as well?
Evaluation of Pedestrian Safety Campaigns in Three Cities –
Missoula, MT, Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC
(2006 Lifesavers Meeting, Austin, TX)
In 1991, The National Bicycling and
Walking Study set goals of (1) doubling the levels of walking and
bicycling in the U.S. and (2) decreasing the number of crash-related
injuries and fatalities by 10 percent (2). Although these goals may
seem contradictory at first, a comprehensive pedestrian safety
program may enable both goals to be achieved. Such a program may
include components that address the three E’s of engineering,
education, and enforcement, for example: (1) providing pedestrian
facilities such as sidewalks and pedestrian signals, (2) educating
pedestrians and motorists about safety, and (3) enforcing
pedestrian-related laws.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
has created a Pedestrian Safety Campaign Planner. It is available
online at
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedcampaign/index.htm and includes
television and radio public service announcements (PSA’s), print
posters, and other materials. Some of the materials are available
in both English and Spanish. States and communities can use these
materials as is, or can customize them to suit their needs.
FHWA sponsored this study to evaluate the
Pedestrian Safety Campaign Planner materials in Missoula, MT,
Savannah, GA, and Washington, DC. This study was carried out to
answer these questions:
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Is the public aware of the campaign
and its messages?
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Has the campaign increased knowledge
of pedestrian safety?
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Are pedestrians and motorists behaving
more safely? (i.e., does knowledge translate into action?)
Sprinkle Consulting, working as a
subconsultant with SAIC, developed the data collection techniques
and performed the evaluations for FHWA using interactive data
collection methods and observational surveys. The findings of these
evaluations provide valuable insight for communities planning
pedestrian safety campaigns.
For additional information on any of
the above projects, please contact
Theo Petritsch,
P.E., PTOE, Director of Transportation Programs, by email or
phone (813.949.7449). |
